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accuses his son Johannes of "...running from one house to another, where only the coarse and vulgar people live, where stories are told of ghosts and witches, teasing and telling tall stories..." [Diary, 11 th April 1788].

Many of the characteristics of 18th-century Europe can also be seen in 18 th-century Switzerland, but Switzerland was often correctly perceived both by inhabitants and foreigners as being "different". It was not a unified country like England or France, but neither was it merely a collection of culturally similar states like those of Germany, with nothing but the nominal overlordship of the Emperor to hold them together politically. Most historians date the foundation of Switzerland from 1291, when three small states later known as the Forest Cantons formed an alliance for mutual protection, sometimes even against the Habsburg dynasty. At first this league was only one of many constantly shifting and overlapping alliances formed by groups of cantons to protect their security and material interests, and (after the Reformation), their religious freedom. Gradually, however, the Bund, the Confederation of all Swiss states, was established alongside these partial and temporary alliances. By the 18th century there were thirteen cantons in the Confederation and most of them also ruled over satellite "subject territories" or exercised protection over "allied territories". The cantons were autonomous in internal affairs, and like Europe as a whole showed great diversity in their political structures. Some cantons were urban and some entirely rural; the largest city cantons such as Bern and Zürich were both, the city governments ruling over large territories beyond their walls.

Switzerland had virtually no national government, no national system of education, no common religion, not even a common language. There was a national parliament, the Tagsatzung (sometimes translated as "Diet"), but this met only once a year. Its proceedings were secret, but in the 18 th century they did not amount to much beyond renewing treaties made by the Confederation as a whole with foreign countries, usually France. Beyond this there was no coherent foreign policy, there was no national standing army, no national administration and no national taxation to pay for such things.

Despite this Switzerland was a more powerful country than one might have expected from its small size and rudimentary political infrastructure. An Englishman, Abraham Stanyan, who had lived in Switzerland for eight years and wrote "An Account" of it in 1714, says in his preface that

The Swiss controlled the passes over the Alps, which were of immense strategic importance. And long before anyone began to appreciate its fertile valleys and picturesque mountains as scenery, they had long enjoyed a reputation for nourishing well-contented citizens, well-behaved but also well able to defend themselves when the occasion arose. The characteristics of "Swiss-ness", which was recognised both at home and abroad long before the Swiss were one nation, included a fierce love of independence and a willingness to work hard. Most Swiss people lived on small mixed farms, an environment where individual self-reliance and hard work could be seen as producing individual prosperity.

Self-reliance and hard work also brought prosperity in industry. Heavy industry was not for the Swiss because they did not have the necessary resources of minerals and fuel. They had indeed, surprisingly early in their history (late 17 th century) made the collective decision not to allow the complete destruction of their forests. Their solution was to develop industries which needed little minerals and fuel but did need what they had in abundance, skilled labour: a world-famous manufacture of scientific instruments, clocks and jewellery, and an equally profitable manufacture of textiles, mostly of high quality and in great demand for export. Exports were vital

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