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humanity of Jesus Christ and cast doubt upon the story of His sufferings, than to hide himself in the wounds of Jesus" (this last is a typical Pietist expression). He was indifferent to sickness and even the prospect of death did not frighten him. Open vice was rare, for fear of the law which could punish it by heavy fines. In "Jaus the Knight-Errant" Bräker clearly accuses some of his neighbours of promiscuous homosexuality, blaming the seduction of innocent farm-boys on young beggar-lads. I think one can also read between some of Bräker's lines in the diary, that there was a certain amount of informal prostitution by women; the "snares" laid for Bräker by girls and their male companions, when his dissatisfactions in marriage became common knowledge, were probably prompted by the hope of immoral earnings and possibly blackmail, as well as by general malice against him. Much evildoing went on in secret, not only in illicit sexual behaviour but also in the bearing of grudges, cheating in business and a general wish to do the other man down, in the courts if necessary.

From Simmler we also learn that among the Toggenburg peasants marriage was usually a matter of custom rather than of love. Most men were at least thirty years old by the time they married, but cohabitation before marriage was not unusual. In spite of this, premarital intercourse was much frowned upon, a lasting disgrace even if the couple eventually married. Mutual love and trust in marriage was the exception rather than the rule, but sometimes appeared when a couple had reached old age together. The husband expected to rule the roost completely, and Bräker's writings make it clear that the wives had no recourse against this domination except by nagging and scolding, ganging up with their older daughters or other wives, or manipulative wheedling and flattery. Quarrelling between man and wife was common but actual violence rare. Children were not much valued until they were old enough to earn money, which could be as young as six years old. Simmler confirms that young children were neglected, even babies were often wrapped only in filthy rags, and little attempt was made to educate them or to discipline them in anything except doing their share of the outwork.

Besides private vices, the Toggenburgers had public amusements which often had their vicious side too. The Swiss generally, from long before Bräker's time, had a reputation for heavy drinking, especially when in company. Stadler, in 1775, relates drinking to their love of fine clothes and jewellery, as being two ways in which money flows out of the Toggenburg: "The people eat badly all week and on Sundays drink their wages. On the outside they wear silk and silver, but next their bodies they wear ragged underclothes, and they have to lie on the kind of feathers that grow on trees". Simmler says that the drinking habit was made worse by the preference for spirits (of which there was a variety, flavoured with plums, pears, juniper and cherries) in preference to milder drinks such as cider. He says he has seen men drink a quarter of a pint of such liquors in two draughts "without pulling a face". Stanyan, writing at the beginning of the century, says [p 7] that the wine of the Zürich canton was undrinkable and that the peasants drank "bad beer". Card-playing was also very popular, Giezendanner (in 1779) said it was regarded as an essential social accomplishment and that men were often pressured into playing against their will.

Young people had games of their own, of a more communal nature and involving women at least as spectators. Simmler says that the Catholics had a wider range of these and were also fond of singing, both hymns and secular songs. Bräker, writing of his youth, mentions young adults dancing and playing games which we would expect only children to play, such as hunt-the-slipper. The Protestants apparently enjoyed a militaristic game which involved the lads of one village, following a leader who wore a special feathered head-dress, invading another village with drums and banners, and even weapons. Sometimes this was followed by dancing and athletic contests, but it could also lead to insults and bloodshed. Young women are specifically mentioned as combining work and pleasure in the "Spinnstube" and "Lichtstube". Officially these were evening gatherings where girls took it in turns to supply lamplight for the whole company to spin by. Unofficially they were social clubs, some even had subscriptions. Sometimes the fun provided was blameless or even a form of devotion, the girls might sing

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